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1781
 
    
German philosopher Immanuel Kant publishes the first of his three 'critiques', The Critique of Pure Reason       
1789
 
    
In his Principles Jeremy Bentham defines 'utility' as that which enhances pleasure and reduces pain       
Jeremy Bentham, by Pickersgill, 1829
National Portrait Gallery, London

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1794
 
    
In his Science of Knowledge Johann Gottlieb Fichte contrasts the I, or Ego, and its opposing non-I, or non-Ego       
1807
 
     
In Phenomenology of Spirit Friedrich Hegel interprets history as the advance of the human mind, often through thesis, antithesis and synthesis        
1809
 
    
French biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck argues in Zoological Philosophy that creatures can inherit acquired characteristics       
1818
 
    
In The World as Will and Idea Schopenhauer develops the bleakest possible view of the effects of the human will       
1836
 
    
In his essay, Nature, Ralph Waldo Emerson sets out the fundamentals of the philolosphy of Transcendentalism       
1840
 
     
The first issue of the quarterly magazine The Dial is issued by the Transcendentalists meeting at Ralph Waldo Emerson's home        
c. 1845
 
    
With his emphasis on the subjective experience of human Existenz, the Danish philosopher Kierkegaard plants the seed of existentialism       
1859
 
    
In On Liberty John Stuart Mill makes the classic liberal case for the priority of the freedom of the individual